- 阅读理解A
题干：Rewardsandpunishmentsareusedindifferentwaysbydifferentcommunitiestomaintainsocialorderandpreserveculturalvalues.Inallcultures,parentsmustteachtheirchildrentoavoiddangerandtoobservethecommunity'smoralprecepts.Adultsalsoconditioneachother'sobservanceofsocialnorms,usingmethodsrangingfrommildformsofcensure,suchaslookingawaywhensomeonemakesaninappropriateremark,toimprisoningorexecutingindividualsforbehaviorconsidereddeviantordangerous.ThecaningofAmericanteenagerMichaelFayinSingaporeforvandalismin1994broughtwidemediaattentiontoculturaldifferencesintheapplicationofpunishment.Facedwithincreasingviolenceathome,manyAmericansendorsedSingapore'suseofcorporalpunishmenttomaintainsocialorder.WasFay'spunishmenteffective?Whetherhesubsequentlyavoidsvandalismisunknown,butthepunishmentdidapparentlyleadtohisavoidanceofSingapore—whichheleftpromptly.Theoperanttechniquessocietiesusetomaintainsocialcontrolvaryinpartwiththedangersandthreatsthatconfrontthem.TheGusiiofKenya,withahistoryoftribalwarfare,facethreatsnotonlyfromoutsidersbutalsofromnaturalforces,includingwildanimals.Gusiiparentstendtorelymoreonpunishmentandfearthanonrewardsinconditioningappropriatesocialbehaviorintheirchildren.Caning,fooddeprivation,andwithdrawingshelterandprotectionarecommonformsofpunishment.Incontrast,theMixtecansofJuxtlahuaca,Mexico,areahighlycohesivecommunity,withlittleinternalconflict,andsocialnormsthatencouragecooperation.Theirsocialpatternsappearadaptive,fortheMixtecansaredominatedbythenearbySpanishMexicans,whocontroltheofficialgovernmentandmanyeconomicresourcesintheirregion.TheMixtecansdonotgenerallyimposefinesorjailsentencesorusephysicalpunishmenttodeteraggressionineitheradultsorchildren.Rather,theytendtorelyonsoothingpersuasion.Socialostracismisthemostfearedpunishment,andsocialtieswithinthecommunityareverystrong,soresponsesthatreinforcethesetiesareeffectiveinmaintainingsocialorder.IntheUnitedStates,fearofsocialostracismorstigmawasonceamorepowerfulforceinmaintainingcontroloverantisocialbehavior,especiallyinsmallcommunities.Today,evenimprisonmentdoesnotappeartobeanadequatedeterrenttomanyformsofcrime,especiallyviolentcrime.Althoughonereasonistheinconsistentapplicationofpunishment,anothermaybethefactthatimprisonmentnolongercarriestheintensestigmaitoncehad,sothatprisonisnolongerasaneffectivepunishment.
题目： The word “stigma” (fourth paragraph) most probably means（）. - A 、irony
- B 、verbal abuse
- C 、persuasion
- D 、bad reputation
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参考答案【正确答案：D】
文章最后一段讲的是美国社会的奖惩制度。作者说，In the United States, fear of social ostracism or stigma was once a more powerful force in maintaining control over antisocial behavior, especially in small communities. 从后面的内容，可以推测出，stigma是“坏名声”的意思。
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